ILS Newsletter – June 2026 | Issue 04

Celebrating One Year of the International Lyre Society

2nd Concerto for ancient Greek Lyre | 3rd Movement

Anecdote of the Month

Another story from Menelaos Pallantios…

During the entrance examinations for young children, Menelaos Pallantios asked one little boy- as was customary – to sing a song.

“I don’t know any songs,” the child replied with complete sincerity.
“Well then, recite a prayer for us,” Pallantios suggested.
“I don’t know any prayers either,” answered the boy.
“Then perhaps you can sing the national anthem,” proposed the Director.
“All right,” said the child, and immediately began:
“Allons enfants de la Patrie…”

The examination came to a rather unexpected conclusion.

The Reconstruction of the Ancient Greek Seven-Stringed Lyre

By George Nikas, luthier and researcher.

Research and Development

My original goal was to reconstruct an ancient Greek lyre for personal use, as I wished to study ancient Greek music. Having only a basic knowledge of instrument making, and using as references the instruments available on the Greek and international markets, I built my first lyre in 2011. The results were not particularly encouraging, both in terms of sound quality and in terms of whether an instrument that appeared to possess so many limitations could truly support virtuosic performance.

With these doubts in mind, I was confronted with a fundamental question: How is it possible that a musical instrument capable of supporting the highly sophisticated musical theory developed by the ancient Greeks, capable of rendering the finest compositions of its age, functioning as a central tool in compulsory education, and enjoying immense prestige as the symbolic instrument of the god of music, remain virtually unchanged for centuries—surely a sign of its perfection—and yet appear so limited in our own hands?

While visual representations provide us with considerable information regarding the ergonomics of the instrument, could its sound truly be the same as that heard two thousand years ago? We undoubtedly listen very differently today than people did in antiquity. Noise pollution, constant access to music through radio, television, the internet, and other media have created entirely different listening conditions. Consequently, our objective is no longer to reconstruct a museum artifact, but rather a fully functional musical instrument that preserves the ergonomics and symbolic forms of the ancient lyre while continuing to serve as one of the universal symbols of Western music.

Our long-term research into the ergonomics and acoustic qualities of the lyre was further enriched by the demanding performance method developed by Dr. Nikos Xanthoulis. The conclusions drawn from this combined effort ultimately led us to determine what kind of instrument is required in order to establish the lyre as a practical, high-level musical instrument.

Quality of Materials

Soundbox

After numerous experiments, we concluded that wood possesses significantly superior acoustic properties compared to an actual tortoise shell, which is essentially bone covered with keratin. Furthermore, the use of genuine shells would necessarily require shells obtained from deceased animals in various stages of decomposition, bringing with it a number of practical and ethical concerns. The use of plastic soundboxes was also rejected, as plastic lacks the acoustic qualities necessary for a high-quality musical instrument.

Why, then, did the ancient Greeks construct lyres from actual tortoise shells rather than from wood, a material they clearly possessed the knowledge and skill to work with? Furthermore, how do modern researchers—who are often neither instrument makers nor musicians—determine the ideal dimensions of a soundbox and, consequently, what constitutes a good sound, when every archaeological specimen recovered from excavations differs in size? This variation is entirely natural, since each tortoise used as a musical instrument belonged to a different species and age group.

Greece is home to three species of land tortoise: the Marginated Tortoise (Testudo marginata), Hermann’s Tortoise (Testudo hermanni), and the Greek Tortoise (Testudo graeca). In addition, there are two freshwater species, the Balkan Terrapin (Mauremys rivulata) and the European Pond Turtle. Finally, the Mediterranean Sea hosts three species of marine turtle: the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta), the Green Turtle, and the Leatherback Turtle.

Moreover, archaeological discoveries in Greece and Southern Italy that have brought to light the remains of ancient lyres have often led scholars to assume that all lyres were constructed exclusively from genuine tortoise shells. This conclusion may be misleading. If such a widespread instrument had always been made from tortoise shell, we would expect a much greater number of surviving examples. Furthermore, after thousands of years, bone is considerably more likely to survive than wood, which naturally decays and is absorbed into the soil.

If we further assume that even in Athens there was at least one lyre in every household—as musical education was an essential component of upbringing—it becomes difficult to imagine that local tortoise populations could have sustained such demand. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that wooden soundboxes painted to resemble tortoise shells may also have been used in antiquity. Indeed, many vase paintings depict remarkably similar shell shapes, almost as though only a single species and size of tortoise existed. This consistency may indicate that artists were depicting standardized wooden replicas rather than actual shells.

For these reasons, the use of wood as a soundbox became the only logical choice. Beyond the acoustic advantages discussed above, ecological considerations also played an important role, as we would not wish to harm animals for the construction of instruments. Likewise, we rejected the widespread use of plastics and synthetic resins commonly employed today in shell replicas. Such materials not only produce inferior acoustic results but also carry a significant environmental footprint.

At the same time, in order to remain faithful to the symbolic and philosophical dimensions of the instrument, we preserved the shape and visual appearance of both terrestrial and marine tortoise shells.

Arms and Crossbar

The woods used for these structural components are likewise sourced from trees native to Greece, including oak, walnut, olive, mulberry, and others. These species were selected primarily for their hardness, as the arms and crossbar form the structural framework of the instrument and must withstand the cumulative tension exerted by the strings, estimated at approximately 43 kilograms.

Chordotonion

The chordotonion is constructed from bronze or copper in order to enhance the overall vibration and acoustic response of the instrument. Beyond its practical role as the anchoring point for the strings, it serves a vital acoustic function by transmitting the vibrations of the strings directly to the soundbox.

Magadion

For the magadion, we employ woods of medium hardness. Excessively hard woods do not efficiently transmit the full spectrum of frequencies produced by the strings, while softer woods tend to dampen the sound and prevent the proper transfer of vibrations to the acoustic membrane.

Strings

To achieve the best possible acoustic results, we selected strings commonly used on other historical instruments. These were chosen for their tonal quality, durability, and resistance to wear caused by repeated contact with the plectrum. Aesthetic considerations were also important, as we sought strings resembling the natural colour of gut rather than conventional nylon strings.

Tuning Pegs

In an effort to improve the tuning mechanism of the instrument, we adopted pegs that rotate within holes drilled through the crossbar rather than the traditional rotating kollopes mounted on top of it. This system provides greater tuning stability. Boxwood, ebony, and rosewood are primarily used, as these materials contribute both to durability and to the efficient transmission of vibration and sound.

It should be noted that this type of tuning peg is not a modern invention. Similar examples have been discovered in excavations at Lefkada dating to the 7th century BCE, as well as in numerous finds from Pompeii*.

*Melini Robertro, Suoni sotto la Cenere, Ed. Flavius – Pompei 2008 page 41

Plectrum

Experiments with a wide range of materials led us to conclude that hard woods such as olive root and walnut, combined with bone, keratin (from goat, ram, or cattle horn), or enamel-like materials such as wild boar tusk, produce excellent results.

The finishing of the plectrum’s tip is particularly important, as it is the primary factor in preventing unwanted scraping noises on the strings. The size of the plectrum may vary according to the hand of the performer. In most cases, a slight curvature in its overall shape improves the tactile experience and comfort of the lyrist during performance.

Ergonomics and Dimensions

We studied a large number of vase paintings and visual representations in order to determine the relationship between the size of the instrument and the size of the human body, focusing primarily on the type of soundbox most frequently depicted in ancient iconography. This research led us to establish approximate dimensions for the instrument, after which extensive experimentation was carried out on the strings, including both their materials and their gauges.

The relationship between string length and thickness ultimately enabled us to determine the ideal overall dimensions of the instrument, ensuring that string tension remained as balanced and efficient as possible. The objective of these experiments was to achieve a level of tension that would allow each open string not only to produce a clear and stable fundamental pitch but also to support all of its natural harmonics with equal clarity.

The reason for pursuing this goal was our desire to integrate harmonics into the instrument’s practical repertoire rather than treating them merely as a sonic effect. Were we successful in achieving this objective?

I believe that the results vindicated our efforts, particularly in the series of lyres based on the form of the sea turtle shell. At this point, however, another factor enters the equation: the human element. No instrument plays itself. Ultimately, it is the musician’s skill—acquired through countless hours of study and practice—that reveals this remarkable point of equilibrium between the sound of the open strings and their harmonics.

Another essential aspect of the instrument’s ergonomics is the spacing between the strings. This is of great importance, as it directly affects the performer’s ability to execute chords comfortably and accurately. We have encountered reconstructed lyres in which the strings were placed so closely together that the fingers of the lyrist could barely fit between them, making it impossible to perform the traditional technique of psallein and limiting performance to simple strumming.

The dimensions of the soundbox constitute another crucial factor. Through extensive experimentation, we arrived at a number of fundamental models capable of producing a balanced and refined tonal character suitable for contemporary musical performance. For example, we tested both shallow and deep soundboxes, each of which produced markedly different acoustic results.

Deep soundboxes generated an excessively long sustain, resulting in a somewhat muddy tonal character, whereas very shallow soundboxes produced a dry and thin sound. Equally important is the thickness of the soundbox walls. Our goal has been to awaken and preserve the finest acoustic qualities of the woods we employ while simultaneously maintaining the richness of the lower and bass frequencies within the instrument’s overall tonal spectrum.

Soundboard

Finally, another decisive factor in achieving a high-quality sound is the soundboard, which in the case of the lyre consists of goat skin.

The selection of a suitable skin at the beginning of the process involves an element of chance, but the subsequent treatment of the skin in an alkaline ash solution to remove the hair is a highly specialized procedure requiring genuine tanning expertise rather than luck. Proper processing is essential in order to preserve the structural and acoustic integrity of the material.

The skin must remain free to vibrate if it is to produce sound effectively. For this reason, the use of adhesives is, in our view, highly undesirable. In our experiments, skins that had been glued directly onto the soundbox consistently demonstrated inferior acoustic performance compared to those mounted using more traditional methods.

Conclusion

In closing, we would like to emphasize that our research has been based upon the study of ancient vase paintings and iconographic sources, surviving written evidence preserved in ancient musical and theoretical texts, and extensive practical interaction with professional musicians, above all Dr. Nikos Xanthoulis.

Through this combination of historical research, experimentation, and performance practice, we have sought to create an instrument capable of meeting the demanding standards of contemporary professional musicians while preserving the philosophical, symbolic, and mythological character of the lyre.

At the same time, particular care has been taken to maintain the geometric proportions associated with the Golden Ratio, ensuring that the instrument remains faithful not only to its musical function but also to the aesthetic and intellectual principles that have accompanied it throughout its long history.

Basic Bibliography

West, M. L. (1999). Ancient Greek Music (S. Komninos, Trans.). Athens: Papadimas Publications.

Michailidis, S. (1989). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Music. Athens: National Bank of Greece Cultural Foundation (MIET).Xanthoulis, N., Cleonides, Aristoxenus, & Anonymous Bellermann. (2005). Art of Music: Harmonic Introduction, Elements of Rhythm II, Art of Music (Introduction, translation, and commentary by Nikos Xanthoulis). Athens: Daidalos – I. Zacharopoulos Publications.

The Phrygian Harmonia

From Theory to Practice

The Phrygian harmonia is one of the most important, and at the same time one of the most debated, harmoniai of ancient Greek music. In theory, it is described as the octave species corresponding to the following sequence:

D – E – F – G – A – B – C – D

with the intervallic arrangement:

tone – semitone – tone – tone – tone – semitone – tone.

Yet already in antiquity, the concept of harmonia was not identified exclusively with a scale. Harmonia included ethos, the behaviour of the notes, the manner of performance, and ultimately the total musical experience.

In the Republic, Plato preserves only two harmoniai in his ideal city: the Dorian and the Phrygian. The first is associated with courage, stability, and self-mastery. The second is linked with energy, prayer, persuasion, and creative action. The Phrygian harmonia is not presented as ecstatic or Dionysian, but rather as a necessary complement to the Dorian.

Aristotle disagrees. In the Politics, he considers it paradoxical that Plato preserves the Phrygian harmonia while rejecting the aulos. In Aristotle’s view, the Phrygian harmonia and the aulos share the same nature: both are orgiastic, enthusiastic, and suitable for the arousal of strong emotions and catharsis. This disagreement is especially significant, because it reveals that even in the Classical period there was no single, fixed understanding of the character of the Phrygian harmonia.

The later tradition appears to stand closer to Aristotle. Pseudo-Plutarch associates the Phrygian harmonia with the aulos, Dionysian rites, and enthusiasm. Plato, by contrast, seems to offer a different reading of the same harmonia within the framework of musical education.

Modern scholars Stefan Hagel and Tosca Lynch have argued that Plato’s choice of the Dorian and Phrygian harmoniai may be connected with the practical realities of the lyre. According to this view, these two harmoniai constituted the most natural and functional systems for the traditional tuning of the lyre. This approach is particularly interesting, although it is based primarily on the theoretical reconstruction of ancient musical systems.

Aristoxenus shifts the focus from ethos to musical structure. The harmoniai become octave species and objects of systematic description. Ptolemy goes even further, incorporating them into a strictly mathematical and acoustic framework. In both cases, however, theory seems to move away from the living musical practice that probably characterized the great lyrists of the Archaic and Classical periods.

All these differences in the understanding of a musical system may very well be due to changes in the perception of ethos from one generation to the next. In other words, there is always evolution – a transformation both of the transmitter and of the receiver. This transformation arises from the different way in which each new generation perceives and interprets the available material.

On a practical level, however, the position of the mese is of particular interest. In the Dorian harmonia, the mese lies on A. If we consider the mese as a centre of sonic organization – a kind of tonic, and why not? – then the chord built upon it suggests a sound that the modern listener would describe as minor. By contrast, in the Phrygian harmonia, the mese lies on G. The chord formed on this note, G-B-D, creates the impression of a major centre.

Of course, the ancients did not speak of major and minor scales in the modern sense. Yet we do not know whether the acoustic experience of these different centres was entirely unrelated to the aesthetic distinctions described in the sources. Perhaps Plato’s preservation of the Dorian and Phrygian harmoniai was not accidental. Perhaps they represented the two great expressive poles of the music of his time.

The surviving musical monuments seem to support this line of thought. The opening phrases of the First Delphic Hymn strongly suggest the feeling of a minor centre, while the first measures of the Seikilos Epitaph convey a brightness that the modern ear perceives as closer to major modality. This is not proof, but it is a musical experience worthy of serious consideration.

My own engagement with the seven-stringed lyre has led me to an additional question. Modern research often links each harmonia with a specific tuning. This does not mean that we cannot, or should not, change the tuning of the instrument when this is necessary for the best possible acoustic result within the tessitura of a given piece. Practical experience, however, shows that the use of harmonics, variations in string tension, and the possibilities offered by technique allow movement between different genera, chroai, and harmoniai without the need for constant retuning.

If we are able to support this acoustically and technically today, it is difficult to imagine that the great lyrists of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE possessed less technical flexibility. Perhaps, then, the harmoniai were not simply different tunings, but different ways of organizing sound around specific centres and specific forms of ethos.

The Phrygian harmonia, as the ancient Greeks understood it in each historical period, continues to elude us. Perhaps, however, the most important task is not to reconstruct its sound with absolute certainty, but to understand why, for more than two thousand years, it remained a symbol of energy, movement, and musical transformation.

Every civilization and every age perceives this particular sequence of intervals in its own way. It is good that we too may enjoy it as we perceive it, while allowing the discussion of antiquity to remain, always, the occasion for wonderful inquiries.

Sources and References

Plato

Republic, Book III, 398e-399a.
In this passage, Socrates preserves the Dorian and Phrygian harmoniai and rejects the others.
“τὴν μὲν βιαίαν καὶ ἑκουσίαν ἐν πολέμοις καὶ πάσῃ ἀνάγκῃ πράξιν…”
(Dorian)
“τὴν δὲ ἐν εἰρήνῃ καὶ ἀναγκαστικὴν καὶ ἑκούσιον πράξιν…”
(Phrygian)

Aristotle

Politics, Book VIII, 1342a-1342b.
The famous passage reads:
“ἔχει γὰρ τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν ἡ φρυγιστὶ τῶν ἁρμονιῶν ἥνπερ αὐλὸς ἐν τοῖς ὀργάνοις”
and:
“ἄμφω γὰρ ὀργιαστικὰ καὶ παθητικά.”
Here lies Aristotle’s central objection to Plato.

Pseudo-Plutarch

On Music, especially chapters 14-17 and 30-32.
There, the Phrygian harmonia is associated with Olympus, the aulos, and the Dionysian tradition.

Aristoxenus

The Harmonic Elements do not provide an ethical description of the Phrygian harmonia. Their importance lies in the fact that they transform the concept of harmonia into:
an octave species,
an intervallic structure,
an acoustic object.
Key references: Harmonics I.23-29 (Da Rios); Harmonics II.37-38.

Ptolemy

Harmonics, Book II, chapters 10-11.

Stefan Hagel

Stefan Hagel, Ancient Greek Music: A New Technical History, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
See chapters 4-5, especially pp. 109-117.

Tosca Lynch

Tosca A. C. Lynch, “Why are only the Dorian and Phrygian Harmoniai accepted in Plato’s Kallipolis? Lyre versus Aulos,” in Lomiento & Meriani (eds.), Mousikē, 2016.

If you have not yet begun your journey with the lyre, we invite you to enroll in our free introductory course and become part of the growing International Lyre Society community.

The first step is open to all – the path continues as far as you wish to go.

Editorial Credits

Articles: Dr. Nikos Xanthoulis, G. Nikas
Copy Editing:
Dr. Evangelia Kopsalidou
Paul Amiel Stewart (English Version)
Editorial Coordination & Visual Curation:
Ilias Zervas

Published by the International Lyre Society